SCIENCE OF ROWING NUTRITION GUIDELINES FOR OPENWEIGHT ROWING

Position statement

At Science of Rowing, we advocate for evidence-based, practical nutrition approaches, emphasising a food-first philosophy with nutrient-dense, whole foods in the pursuit of success in open weight rowing. Based on the current literature and nutritionist recommendations our position is as follows:

1. Estimated energy requirements suggest that rowers may need up to 6,500 kcal/day for men and 5,000 kcal/day for women.
2. Rowing is predominantly an aerobic sport, so rowers should consume 6–12 grams of carbohydrate per kilogram of body weight daily (g/kg/d).
3. Adaptable carbohydrate strategies should reflect the training programme and desirable outcomes. The harder and longer the session, the increased carbohydrate requirements. Consume 30–60 grams of carbohydrate per hour when training for longer than 90 minutes.
4. Carbohydrate is crucial to support training recovery and adaptation, particularly when following a demanding training programme. To kick-start recovery aim for 1.2 g/kg of carbohydrate soon after exercise.
5. Daily protein recommendations should be between 1.4–2.2 g/kg/d. The protein range depends on training volume and recovery requirements. Higher amounts may help to support muscle mass when restricting energy intake (such as, lowering body fat).
6. Protein is an essential nutrient that supports muscle recovery, growth and development. Rowers should consume 0.3–0.4 g/kg of body weight per meal.
7. There is no single best protein source, the quality, absorption rate, and biological value should all be considered. Consuming a variety of protein sources is ideal, as it balances other nutritional factors such as calorie, fat, and micronutrient content.
8. Following exercise and as a pre-bed protein snack consume 0.4 g/kg to maximise adaptation and recovery.
9. Fat is not an essential nutrient for performance but remains a crucial element in any diet as it provides and supports the absorption of many other nutrients, not to mention hormone production, immunity and a source of energy.
10. Consume between 1–1.5 g/kg of body weight per day. It is important to focus on healthy fat sources, such as unsaturated fats from nuts, seeds, avocados, olive oil, and fatty fish.
11. Whilst there is much scientific research and evidence for the monitoring and inclusion of numerous micronutrients, the strongest and most applicable evidence is for calcium, vitamin D, iron and probiotics. All are presented here with supporting evidence and practical recommendations.

Background

Openweight Rowing presents unique nutritional challenges that require careful attention to optimise performance, recovery, and overall health. Acknowledging the need for clear guidance, we have developed this position stand to provide an evidence-based summary of the scientific research underpinning nutrition in rowing. While firmly rooted in robust academic evidence, our recommendations focus on practical application, ensuring they are accessible to all rowers. At Science of Rowing, we adopt a food-first approach, prioritising whole, nutrient-dense options to meet dietary requirements. However, we also recognise that targeted supplementation may sometimes be necessary to address specific gaps and support dietary adequacy, enabling rowers to perform at their best.

The Energy Requirements of Rowing

Rowers face complex nutritional demands to support the high energy expenditure and physiological challenges associated with the training and performance. Open weight rowers require individualised and flexible nutrition strategies to accommodate training intensity, competition phases, and body composition goals. Self-reported energy intakes for open weight male rowers range from approximately 3,700 to 4,900 kcal/day, and 2,380 to 3,000 kcal/day for females, varying with training phase and individual factors (Baranauskas et al., 2015). However, estimated energy requirements suggest rowers may need significantly more, up to 6,500 kcal/day for men and 5,000 kcal/day for women (Boegman & Dziedzic, 2016).

During a 2000-metre rowing race, energy is predominantly derived from the aerobic system (~77%), supported by glycogen stores, while the anaerobic system (~33%) plays a critical role in the initial and high-intensity stages (Martin & Tomescu, 2017). Consequently, rowing requires a well-developed balance of aerobic and anaerobic capacity, strength, power, and lactate tolerance, all of which rely heavily on optimal nutrition. Proper fuelling not only enhances training adaptations and performance but also safeguards the rower’s long-term health. This position stand will provide evidence-based recommendations to meet the unique and demanding nutritional needs of open weight rowers.

Nutrition for Training

Elite rowers perform up to 15 training sessions per week, totalling around 65 hours per month, making their regimen one of the most demanding in sport. While the metabolic cost of a 2 km rowing race is relatively modest (150–250 kcal), success hinges on exceptional aerobic efficiency. Consequently, training is heavily endurance-focused, with nutrition prioritising optimal carbohydrate intake as the primary fuel source.

To sustain this high training volume, rowers are advised to consume 6–12 grams of carbohydrate per kilogram of body weight daily (g/kg/d). For a 90 kg rower, this equates to 540–1,080 grams of carbohydrate per day, a substantial and potentially daunting amount. For context, a standard portion of pasta provides ~75 grams of carbohydrate.

While daily carbohydrate intake remains the top priority, the roles of protein, fats, and key vitamins and minerals are also crucial in building a diet for success. These elements, alongside a well-structured nutrition plan, should complement a periodised training programme to promote adaptation, optimise performance, and reduce the risk of injury.

Carbohydrate

Carbohydrates are stored as glycogen (a branched chain of glucose) in the muscles and liver. However, these stores are limited, so regular carbohydrate intake is necessary to replenish them. Daily carbohydrate requirements depend on the amount and intensity of training planned. The International Society of Sports Nutrition (ISSN) recommends that to maximise glycogen stores, athletes should consume a high carbohydrate diet of 6–12 g/kg/d.

Training intensity and duration	Carbohydrate recommendation
Moderate intensity for 1 h/d	5–7 g/kg/d
Moderate to high intensity 1–3 h/d	6–10 g/kg/d
Moderate to high intensity 4–5 h/d	8–12 g/kg/d

A demanding training programme may naturally involve sessions with lower muscle glycogen or reduced carbohydrate availability, potentially enhancing the “train-low” adaptation response. Training with low carbohydrate availability can signal the body to increase its reliance on fat oxidation and stimulate mitochondrial biogenesis, the process of producing energy-generating structures within cells (Close, Hamilton, Philp, Burke & Morton, 2016). However, insufficient carbohydrate intake can result in depleted glycogen, higher perceived exertion, reduced training tolerance, and increased fatigue. Therefore, it is vital to consume adequate carbohydrates to meet training needs without excess that could lead to unwanted weight gain. This will require some time and a process of trial and error to establish, depending on your training programme.

Strategy	Description
High CHO availability	Start the session with full glycogen stores.
Low CHO availability	Start the session with limited energy or fasted. Carefully plan and monitor.
CHO during	30–60 g of carbohydrate per hour to support training intensity. For sessions greater than 90 minutes.
CHO recovery	1.2 g/kg within 60 min of training to aid glycogen resynthesis and recovery.

Fortunately, we are not short of carbohydrate foods. Here is a list of good carbohydrate sources with portion size recommendations based on providing approximately 50 g of carbohydrates:

Breakfast Cereals Oats: 70 g (~1/2 cup) Muesli: 60 g (~1/2 cup) Granola: 60 g (~1/2 cup) Weetabix: 4 biscuits Shredded Wheat: 3 biscuits	Bread, Muffins, Bagels & Wraps Wholemeal Bread: 2 slices Seeded Bread: 2 slices Wholemeal Bagel: 1.5 bagels Wholemeal Muffins: 2 muffins Wholemeal Wrap: 2 wraps	Pasta, Noodles, Rice (cooked) Wholemeal Pasta: 150 g (~3/4 cup) Wholewheat Noodles: 150 g (~3/4 cup) Brown Rice: 150 g (~3/4 cup) White Rice: 150 g (~3/4 cup)
Other Grains (cooked) Quinoa: 150 g (~3/4 cup) Couscous: 150 g (~3/4 cup) Bulgur Wheat: 150 g (~3/4 cup)	Snack Grain Products Crispbread: 5–6 slices Oatcakes: 6–7 oatcakes Rice Cakes: 6–7 rice cakes Crackers: 8–10 crackers	Dairy Products Milk (whole or semi-skimmed): 2 pints Yoghurt (Natural): 1000 g (big pot)
Root Vegetables and Potatoes (cooked) Sweet Potato: 300 g (~1 medium) Potatoes: 300 g (~1 medium) Carrots: 500 g (~5 medium) Swede: 300 g (~1/2 medium) Beetroot: 400 g (~4 medium)	Beans, Peas, Lentils (cooked) Lentils: 300 g (~1 cup) Chickpeas: 300 g (~1 cup) Kidney Beans: 300 g (~1 cup) Baked Beans: 300 g (~1 cup) Peas: 400 g (~2 cups)	Vegetables and Fruits Sweetcorn (cooked): 200 g (~1 cup) Bananas: 2 medium Apples: 2 medium Raisins: 60 g (~1/4 cup) Fruit Juice (unsweetened): 500 ml

These carbohydrate sources also offer a range of other nutrients, making them excellent choices. Wholegrain varieties are particularly rich in fibre and provide better nutritional value compared to processed white alternatives. Starch-based and plant-based carbohydrates are generally preferred as they help to maintain a stable blood glucose level. Whilst a typical recommendation is to avoid carbohydrate foods that are high in simple sugars, such as, sweets, biscuits, cakes, and chocolate, simple sugars can play a valuable role in glycogen replenishment (Hagerman & Hagerman, 1990). This is especially true within the first 24 hours after intense training or racing, offering a quick and convenient way to kick-start recovery. Having some form of carbohydrate post exercise is always better than having nothing.

Nutritionist Recommendations

• Always have some carbohydrate foods after training. Aim for 1.2 g/kg soon after exercise. That could be part of a meal, some fruit, a sandwich or recovery supplement.
• 60% of a rower’s diet should come from carbohydrate. Aim to consume 6–12 g/kg/d.
• Carbohydrate consumption can be challenging. Tolerance is trainable but may take some time to implement.
• Use a variety of carbohydrate sources to meet intake requirements and for additional nutrients (vitamins and minerals).
• Align carbohydrate intake with training intensity and recovery demands. The more you do, the more you need.
• Plan your carbohydrate intake to match training goals, as chronic low availability impairs training intensity, recovery, and adaptation, increasing the risk of underperformance, injury, and illness (Gleeson, 2016).
• For sessions of high intensity or lasting more than 90 min, consume carbohydrate (30–60 g per hour) to help limit energy depletion. Fruit, flapjacks, energy gels and drinks are all good options.

Protein

Protein is essential for muscle repair, growth, and development. Unlike carbohydrates or fats, protein is not stored in the body for energy and is constantly being broken down and rebuilt, therefore requiring regular intakes. For effective muscle recovery and growth, muscle protein synthesis (MPS) must be in a positive state, which has been shown to increase by 30–100% after protein consumption. Generally, 20–25 g of protein per meal is recommended to stimulate MPS, though larger individuals may benefit from consuming more, up to 40 g. For rowers, this equates to a weight-adjusted recommendation of 0.3–0.4 g/kg of body weight per meal (Jäger et al., 2017).

Rowers may consume more protein than required, either in a single meal or throughout the day. While excess protein does not further enhance MPS, it is oxidised to provide additional energy, a useful benefit during periods of high energy expenditure. Although less important than the protein consumption per meal, a suitable daily amount of protein would be between 1.4–2.2 g/kg/d.

While consuming enough protein per meal (and therefore across the day) is the top priority, the food source and timing of intake also matter. Protein is a collection of amino acids, which in part determines the protein quality. More recently the elevated presence of essential amino acids, notably Leucine, have emerged as a key stimulus for MPS. Consuming a variety of protein sources is ideal, as it balances other nutritional factors such as calorie, fat, and micronutrient content.

Although there is no single best protein source, the quality, absorption rate, and biological value should all be considered. Rowers should consume 0.4 g/kg (~20–30 g) of protein immediately after exercise to optimise adaptation and recovery. A key time for protein consumption to aid MPS is 30 minutes before bed. Consuming a dairy-based protein such as casein is an excellent choice to support muscle protein synthesis during sleep, further enhancing recovery and development (Burke et al., 2021).

Here is a list of good protein sources with portion size recommendations based on providing 20 g of protein:

Meat & Fish Chicken breast: 90 g (~2/3 of a medium breast) Salmon: 90 g (~2/3 of a large fillet) Lean beef: 90 g (~1/2 cup diced) Turkey: 90 g (~1/2 cup sliced)	Dairy & Eggs Eggs: 3 large Greek yoghurt: 200 g (standard pot) Milk: 500 ml Cottage cheese: 200 g (standard pot)
Plant-Based (cooked) Tofu: 150 g (~3/4 cup firm, diced) Lentils: 300 g (~1 cup) Chickpeas: 200 g (~1 cup) Quinoa: 250 g (~1 cup)	Snacks & Supplements Protein bar: 1 standard bar (~60 g) Protein shake: 30 g (~1 scoop whey) Peanut butter: 4 tablespoons (~65 g) Mixed nuts: 60 g (~1/2 cup)

With dietary restrictions like vegetarianism and veganism becoming more common, meeting protein needs for muscle growth and development remains achievable, although it can be more challenging as animal-based proteins are typically of higher quality and come with additional supporting nutrients.

Nutritionist Recommendations

1. Consume a daily protein intake of 1.4–2.2 g/kg/d.
2. Include protein in every meal or snack, approximately 20–40 g where possible.
3. Consume 0.4 g/kg of protein after exercise to optimise adaptation and recovery.
4. Include pre-bed protein to boost muscle protein synthesis at night.
5. Use diverse protein sources to balance calories, fats, and micronutrients.

Fat

The role of fat in a rower’s diet is not specifically focused on enhancing performance but rather on supporting hormone production, immunity, and meeting overall energy requirements, while addressing any significant deficits. Fat remains an essential part of any diet, as it supports the absorption of fat-soluble vitamins, antioxidants, and essential fatty acids.

Although high-fat, low-carbohydrate diets have gained popularity, they should be approached with caution. Such diets may reduce glycogen utilisation and hinder the ability to sustain high intensity training (Mountjoy et al., 2014). Given that the body has virtually unlimited fat stores, there is no need for an excessively high-fat diet.

The recommended fat intake for rowers is between 1–1.5 g/kg of body weight per day. This amount supports adequate energy levels and essential physiological functions, such as cell structure, hormone production, and recovery. It is important to focus on healthy fat sources, such as unsaturated fats from nuts, seeds, avocados, olive oil, and fatty fish.

Nutritionist Recommendations

1. Consume less than 17.5 g of fat per 100 g of food.
2. Become familiar with nutrition labelling and balance naturally high-protein foods with the fat content.
3. Consume oily fish at least twice a week to boost your dietary omega-3 intake. Supplement alternatives may be required in certain circumstances (dietary restrictions).
4. Dietary fat can be extremely useful to rowers that struggle to meet energy requirements.
5. A fingertip of fat is a sensible serving size for oils and butter.

Supplementary Nutrients for Supporting Athlete Health

To minimise training disruptions and prevent poor performance, it is essential to actively manage illness in rowers. In addition to sleep and hygiene, nutritional strategies should be a core aspect of maintaining athlete health. Alongside the key macronutrients, there are several other nutrients that also require attention and discussion.

Calcium

Low energy availability and dietary restrictions are common challenges in rowing. If not addressed promptly, these can negatively impact bone health, partly due to insufficient calcium intake. Calcium is vital for maintaining strong bones, and low levels can lead to complications over time. To meet calcium needs, incorporate calcium-rich foods such as dairy products, leafy greens, beans, chickpeas, almonds, and chia seeds into your diet. The recommended intake is 1,000–1,500 mg/day. If dietary calcium remains insufficient, supplementation may be necessary to support optimal bone health (Mountjoy et al., 2014).

Vitamin D

Vitamin D is essential for bone health as it regulates calcium balance, enhances immune function, and supports exercise performance. It is naturally synthesised in the skin upon exposure to sunlight, and adequate exposure during the summer can maintain vitamin D levels for some individuals throughout the year. However, athletes in northern regions, with darker skin tones, or those who primarily train indoors, often cannot depend on sunlight alone for their vitamin D needs.

Dietary sources of vitamin D include liver, cod liver oil, fatty fish, and egg yolks. In certain countries, foods like milk and cereals are fortified with vitamin D. For those at risk of deficiency, regular monitoring and supplementation may be necessary to maintain bone health.

Particularly for rowers, evidence highlights vitamin D’s role in preventing rib stress injuries (McDonnell, Hume & Nolte, 2011). Supplementation during winter with 1,000–4,000 IU/day is recommended, though higher doses might be required in some cases. Consultation with a medical professional is advised to determine appropriate supplementation.

Iron

Iron is an essential nutrient for rowers, playing a critical role in optimal performance. It is a key component of haemoproteins, which are vital for oxygen transport, storage, and energy production in the mitochondria. This directly impacts physical work capacity, endurance, and recovery.

Endurance athletes like rowers often face challenges in maintaining optimal iron levels due to factors such as high energy expenditure, dietary deficiencies, haemolysis (red blood cell breakdown), gastrointestinal issues, and losses through sweat and urine. Moreover, the post-exercise rise in hepcidin, a regulatory hormone that reduces iron absorption and recycling, compounds the risk of iron deficiency.

Elite rowers, who frequently engage in high training volumes, are particularly vulnerable. Studies have shown that up to 27% of elite rowers experience iron deficiency (ferritin levels below 30 µg/L) by the end of a competitive season, with 14% carrying this deficiency into the following season (Reinke, 2012). Due to menstruation, iron deficiency has a greater prevalence in female rowers than males, as much as up to 60% in some female groups (Coates, Mountjoy & Burr, 2017). To mitigate these risks, rowers should aim to maintain a ferritin status above 50 µg/L. This can be achieved by consuming iron-rich foods such as red meat, poultry, fish, beans, and fortified cereals. Incorporating vitamin C-rich foods can enhance iron absorption, while avoiding inhibitors like tannins (in tea and coffee) and calcium during iron-rich meals. For those unable to meet their iron needs through diet alone, supplementation may be necessary. Always consult with a medical professional before supplementing to prevent iron toxicity.

Probiotics

Probiotics are increasingly recognised for their potential to enhance both digestive and immune health by modifying the gut microbiota (O’Brien, O’Sullivan, Claesson & Cotter, 2022). Gut-boosting fibre should be a mainstay in the diet, but daily probiotic supplementation, particularly with strains of Lactobacillus and Bifidobacterium (at doses of at least 10 billion live bacteria), may help reduce the severity and duration of upper respiratory symptoms. Substantial changes in gut microbiota can occur in as little as seven days of supplementation. Emerging evidence also hints at a potential role for immune cells in muscle adaptation and regeneration following exercise, suggesting probiotics might indirectly benefit recovery.

Nutritionist Recommendations

• Always consult a nutritionist or medical practitioner when considering supplementation.
• Scrutinise the existing diet for these ‘athlete health’ promoting nutrients.
• Natural food additions are always the best approach, but supplementation may help to fill any gaps.

Practical Application

The nutritional strategies outlined in this position stand underscore the critical importance of a tailored approach to meet the unique demands of open-weight rowing. Rowers must balance macronutrient intake to sustain high training volumes, optimise performance, and support recovery, while also ensuring adequate intake of key micronutrients to safeguard health and longevity in the sport. By aligning carbohydrate, protein, and fat consumption with training intensity, competition phases, and individual needs, athletes can enhance adaptation, reduce injury risk, and maximise performance. Supplementary nutrients such as iron, calcium, vitamin D, and probiotics further contribute to maintaining peak physical condition. Effective nutrition is an indispensable component of success in rowing, forming the foundation for both immediate performance and long-term athletic development.

Bonus Content

Download the full infographic (PDF)

References

1. Baranauskas, M., Stukas, R., Tubelis, L., Žagminas, K., Šurkienë, G., Švedas, E., … & Abaravičius, J. A. (2015). Nutritional habits among high-performance endurance athletes. Medicina, 51(6), 351–362.
2. Boegman, S., & Dziedzic, C. E. (2016). Nutrition and supplements for elite open-weight rowing. Current Sports Medicine Reports, 15(4), 252–261.
3. Martin, S. A., & Tomescu, V. (2017). Energy systems efficiency influences the results of 2,000 m race simulation among elite rowers. Clujul Medical, 90(1), 60.
4. Kim, J., & Kim, E. K. (2020). Nutritional strategies to optimize performance and recovery in rowing athletes. Nutrients, 12(6), 1685.
5. Close, G. L., Hamilton, D. L., Philp, A., Burke, L. M., & Morton, J. P. (2016). New strategies in sport nutrition to increase exercise performance. Free Radical Biology and Medicine, 98, 144–158.
6. Hagerman, F. C., & Hagerman, M. T. (1990). A comparison of energy output and input among elite rowers. FISA Coach, 2, 5–8.
7. Gleeson, M. (2016). Immunological aspects of sport nutrition. Immunology and Cell Biology, 94(2), 117–123.
8. Jäger, R., Kerksick, C. M., Campbell, B. I., Cribb, P. J., Wells, S. D., Skwiat, T. M., … & Antonio, J. (2017). International Society of Sports Nutrition position stand: protein and exercise. Journal of the International Society of Sports Nutrition, 14, 1–25.
9. Burke, L. M., Whitfield, J., Heikura, I. A., Ross, M. L., Tee, N., Forbes, S. F., … & Sharma, A. P. (2021). Adaptation to a low carbohydrate high fat diet is rapid but impairs endurance exercise metabolism and performance despite enhanced glycogen availability. The Journal of Physiology, 599(3), 771–790.
10. Mountjoy, M., Sundgot-Borgen, J., Burke, L., Carter, S., Constantini, N., Lebrun, C., … & Ljungqvist, A. (2014). The IOC consensus statement: beyond the female athlete triad, relative energy deficiency in sport (RED-S). British Journal of Sports Medicine, 48(7), 491–497.
11. McDonnell, L. K., Hume, P. A., & Nolte, V. (2011). Rib stress fractures among rowers: definition, epidemiology, mechanisms, risk factors and effectiveness of injury prevention strategies. Sports Medicine, 41, 883–901.
12. Reinke, S., Taylor, W. R., Duda, G. N., von Haehling, S., Reinke, P., Volk, H. D., … & Doehner, W. (2012). Absolute and functional iron deficiency in professional athletes during training and recovery. International Journal of Cardiology, 156(2), 186–191.
13. Coates, A., Mountjoy, M., & Burr, J. (2017). Incidence of iron deficiency and iron deficient anemia in elite runners and triathletes. Clinical Journal of Sport Medicine, 27(5), 493–498.
14. O’Brien, M. T., O’Sullivan, O., Claesson, M. J., & Cotter, P. D. (2022). The athlete gut microbiome and its relevance to health and performance: a review. Sports Medicine, 52(Suppl 1), 119–128.

Disclaimer

The recommendations in this publication are not medical guidelines but are for educational purposes only. The authors strongly recommend that you consult with your physician before beginning any exercise programme. You should be in good physical condition and be able to participate in any sort of exercise. The authors are not licensed healthcare providers and represent that they have no expertise in diagnosing, examining, or treating medical conditions of any kind, or in determining the effect of any specific exercise on a medical condition. You should understand that when participating in any exercise or exercise programme, there is the possibility of physical injury. If you engage in exercises from this publication, you agree that you do so at your own risk, are voluntarily participating in these activities, assume all risk of injury to yourself, and agree to release and discharge the publisher and the authors from any and all claims or causes of action, known or unknown, arising out of the contents of this publication. The authors advise you to take full responsibility for your safety and know your limits. Before practising the skills described, be sure that your equipment is well maintained and do not take risks beyond your level of experience, aptitude, training, and comfort level. The recommendations in this publication are not intended as a substitute for any exercise routine, treatment, or dietary regimen that may have been prescribed by your physician. Do not lift heavy weights if you are alone, inexperienced, injured, or fatigued. Do not perform any exercise without proper instruction. Always perform a warm-up before all forms of training.